Known as universal gates; any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND or only NOR gates.
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At the most fundamental level, a computer is a collection of billions of transistors—microscopic electronic switches that can be either "on" or "off" (representing binary 1 and 0). These transistors are arranged to form , the building blocks of digital thinking. AND Gate : Outputs 1 only if all inputs are 1. OR Gate : Outputs 1 if at least one input is 1. NOT Gate : Inverts the input (0 becomes 1, and vice versa).
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The mathematical workhorse. Built from the combinational adder and logic circuits discussed earlier, the ALU performs all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction) and logical comparisons (AND, OR, NOT, equality checks).
Computing is a testament to human ingenuity through encapsulation. Each layer of a computer relies completely on the layer below it, while safely hiding its underlying complexity from the layer above: